Chiasmus.

Sounds almost gynaecological doesn't it.

In Greek this letter is pronounced like the ch in loch – Chi. As in Christmas, chiropody and chiropractor. It looks – and you need to pay attention here – like this:

And you can use it in sentences too – a crossover which is rather clever.

Like this:

Nature is not symmetrical; and symmetry is not natural.

Explanation:

Nature is not symmetrical; and symmetry is not natural.

Bruce Forsyth made a career out of his 

“Nice to see you!” Audience shouts back: “To see you nice!”

The three musketeers:

One for all, and all for one!

As Plato never said: Eat to live or live to eat.

We must bring our enemies to justice – or justice to our enemies.

How to construct your own chiasmus:

Think of two words which go with your idea: handsome celebrity

A celebrity has to be handsome, but you don't have to be handsome to be a celebrity. Then start talking about your chosen celebrity.

Terrible and frightening.

Frightening is something terrible, but something terrible is not something to be frightened of. Then start talking about your recent operation.

It can be very simple:

I like dogs; dogs like me. Now tell about the dog who unexpectedly went for you on your walk through Exmoor.

A Level Students only:

What use is the Chiasmus in exams though?

Well, a half decent examiner will spot a chiasmus a mile off and s/he will then be right behind you looking for ways to increase your mark. Increasing your mark is just what you want from an examiner who is right behind you.

Henry VIII married six wives, but let us not forget that six wives married Henry VIII. 

We can then start talking about his wives from their point of view.

Or Henry VIII liked insulting Francis of France, but Francis liked insulting Henry too. 

You can then trot out the foreign policy which you so carefully revised.

Chiasmus gives the impression of giving both points of view; both points of view are the essence of chiasmus.

(Added emphasis is most important for exams because exams depend on added emphasis.)

Paradox.

A paradox sounds ridiculous until you realise it is true.

Have you read Nineteen eighty four yet? Out of date, yes. But bang up to the minute in its approach.

"War is peace."
"Freedom is slavery."
"Ignorance is strength."

(George Orwell, 1984)

Truth is lies! 

Politicians! Honestly! (I write this on the day of our General Election 2019.)

Mr Corbyn never laid that wreath on the grave of a murderous terrorist in Tunisia. There will be no border down the Irish Sea. For the many not the few. Get Brexit done!

Truth is lies. "Now let me be perfectly clear on this…" (As Mrs May used to say before a huge fib.) "I never had sex with that woman…" (Bill Clinton).

Truth is lies.

But let us move on.

Oscar Wilde was a master of paradox: 

The only way to get rid of a temptation is to give in to it.

There are two tragedies in life. One is to lose your heart's desire. The other is to gain it. 

George Bernard Shaw was a master of paradox too.

Paradox, one of the most complicated tricks of style, it actually easy to write.

Think of grumbling.

It is very expensive to run a family.

(Now throw in the word not.)

It is not very expensive to be lonely.

Having to go to work is a chore. (Now throw in the word not.) Not having to go to work is hell.

Or play with words (especially good in politics):

Vote Blue – go Green.
Left is Right!
Labour isn't working!
Liberal Democrats – neither liberal nor democratic.

Back to the future. Can you remember that film?

Dream the impossible dream.

Why did the Roman Emperor believe in Christianity?

Credo quia absurdum – I believe it because it is ridiculous.

Rome has no equal; even the ruins show its greatness.

A good Paradox sounds stupid; but it is loved by the clever.

Zeugma – yoking sentences together.

Of course when you are writing English and you are faced with that huge space to fill with words, it has got to be tempting to spread yourself a bit...

Zeugma is just the opposite!

It cuts bits out.

So if you were writing this:

In summer I like to wear a nice pair of shorts and a cotton shirt. Winter is a horrible time when I like to wear as many clothes as possible.

Zeugma makes it elegant.

In summer I like to wear a nice pair of shorts and a cotton shirt; in winter as many clothes as possible.

The good end happily; the bad unhappily.

My true love hath my heart, I his.

In quick succession, Susan lost her job, then her mind!

To be witty – add something frivolous on the end of the list:

"They tugged and tore at each other's hair and clothes, punched and scratched each other's nose, and covered themselves with dust and glory." - The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Mark Twain

 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the leopard his spots? - (Jeremiah, the old Testament Prophet. 13.2)

The same words are not repeated, neither the verb. You trust the reader to fill in the gaps.

Yoking sentences together is just like two oxen pulling one plough. Elegant English, like all style, depends on saying as little as possible. Less is more...

Dusky mysteries are intriguing, in your face not so much.

Enallage: Copy and Paste.

This little trick has a proper name – Enallage. It comes, of course, from the Greek and it means copying and pasting: putting stuff in. You switch stuff over, however bad the English.

We know it as copy and paste. You just take the words as spoken or written and paste them, mistakes and all, onto the page.

You can always translate it.

“Ah no sabby Sah!” the Sergeant snapped.
“I don't think anyone knows,” Major Carruthers replied and looked him in the eye. He respected the West African Riot Police.

“ 'Ow are we today, Monsieur Jones?” The French
Policeman smiled as he replaced his pistol in its holster.

“Vell,” shouted the German teacher who could not keep order, “who has neeeckt my pen?” 

Here is a comment which was written on a local discussion group about capital punishment. Someone suggested that it be restored in UK for terrorist offences:

“it wont happen, the police have to deal with these people in the streets as they come across them, if it means shooting them then they will “

If the English had been corrected, the rawness of the comment would have been lost.

And advertisers love enallage.

And so did William Shakespeare.

And so do song writers who simply copy and paste their thoughts and words onto the tune as they flow out:

I'm leaving today
'Cause I gotta do what's best for me
You'll be okay
I've got to move on and be who I am
I just don't belong here
I hope you understand
We might find a place in this world someday
But at least for now
I gotta go my own way

The thing about enallage – copying and pasting – is that it brings what you are saying to life.

Don't it.

Balanced sentences (Isocolon)..

Equal sentences give balance.

One sided sentences give imbalance.

Seeing both points of view is right: blindness to the other point of view is dangerous.

If you happen to be a genius, you can string lots of them together:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair…” - Dickens loved balanced sentences.

So did Shakespeare:

As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honour him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him.

(Brutus in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.)

Here are some more homely isocolons. 

Climate is what we expect; weather is what we get.

 "It takes a licking, but it keeps on ticking!"(Timex watches.) 

Roses are red, violets are blue...

You can balance the syllables if you like. Read this aloud to see how it works.

Down in a deep, dark hole, sat an old cow munching a beanstalk.
Into her mouth there came yesterday's dinner and tea.

Very soon you get into poetry this way, no doubt as many Rappers have discovered.

Earth hath not anything to show more fair. Dull would he be of soul who could pass by a sight so pleasing in its majesty...

(William Wordsworth: On Westminster Bridge.)

But now we are straying from the subject and we are losing the thread. This is prose: it is not poetry!

Repeating thoughts in a balanced way is impressive: everyone likes a good isocolon.

Cassius Clay/Mohammed Ali, one of the best boxers the world has ever known, said this: 

“Float like a butterfly: sting like a bee.”

Advertisers adore the isocolon. It keeps them in work.

Have a break, have a Kit Kat.
The future's bright. The future's Orange.

Patriots love it: this is the Polish National Anthem:

Poland has not yet succumbed. As long as we remain,
What the foe by force has seized, Sword in hand we'll gain.

The Ghanayan National Anthem:

God bless our homeland Ghana 

And make our nation great and strong,

The simple little isocolon works every time. It is so easy to use.

Syllepsis: linking words together.

How about this for clever?

Miss Bolo rose from the table considerably agitated, and went straight home, in a flood of tears and a sedan chair.

Dickens at his best.

When I address Fred (pictured above) I never have to raise either my voice or my hopes. 

Vegetarianism is harmless enough, though it is apt to fill a man with wind and self-righteousness. 

You took my hand and breath away.

Dorothy Parker:

It's a small apartment. I've barely enough room to lay my hat and a few friends.

Hat tip

It is easy – you take a verb and add objects which have no connection to each other. Examples show you can and up the people who can't.

When surprised by a maid entering his hotel bathroom, he stood up covered himself as best he could. In his panic he lost his soap, his honour and his sponge.

He opened the door and his heart to the homeless boy.

It can be very simple if you use other parts of speech:

Get up and shut up. 

She shut her handbag and her mouth. 

The police shot at the man and off after his stooge.

See? You have to get it absolutely right or other people won't get it.

She ate the linguini with a fork and a twinkle in her eye.

 

He wore a suit and a smirk.

Take on your own syllepsis and off that look of despair!

Erm...

Yoking words up.

Two or three oxen pulling a plough. Both doing the same job. Different animals. Under the same yoke.

Staying in ancient Greece for a moment. The ancient Greeks thought hand movements during speeches were very important to making a point. The great orator Demosthenes was asked what the three most important things in rhetoric were. He replied: “Action. Action. Action.”

The three most important things about starting a business? Location. Location. Location.

Tony Blair loved it. Here are two classics:

“Ask me my three main priorities for government and I tell you: education, education, education.”

Destroying John Major at the end of his premiership:

“Isn't it extraordinary that the Prime Minister of our country can't even urge his Party to back his own position? Weak. Weak. Weak!”

Mrs Thatcher:

"The President of the Commission, M. Delors, said at a press conference the other day that he wanted the European Parliament to be the democratic body of the Community, he wanted the Commission to be the Executive and he wanted the Council of Ministers to be the Senate. No. No. No."

"Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow creeps in this petty pace from day to day."

Macbeth going mad.

Is works with three repeats: with two it doesn't stick out so much.

Tiger Tiger burning bright in the forests of the night. 

I am shocked, shocked, to find gambling going on in here. 

Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

It is really like banging your shoe or the flat of your hand on the table. Works every time. Try it.

You must, however, ration yourself very strictly.

If you do it too much, it just looks silly. Try it and see for yourself. A bit like a toddler...